Health risks of groundwater fluoride in the urban coastal area of Béjaïa, North Algeria
Résumé
Fluoride (F⁻) is an essential trace element required for normal bone and dental health; however, prolonged exposure to excessive concentrations through drinking water can lead to adverse health effects ranging from dental to skeletal fluorosis.The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a permissible limit of 1.5 mg L⁻¹ for fluoride in drinking water, beyond which chronic health effects may occur, particularly among vulnerable populations such as children and pregnant women.In the urban coastal area of Béjaïa, fluoride concentrations in groundwater varied substantially between shallow and deep aquifers, with several samples exceeding the WHO guideline value.To quantify potential health impacts, a human health risk assessment (HHRA) was conducted for three exposure groups children, women, and men considering both oral ingestion and dermal contact pathways.The calculated hazard quotients (HQ) for oral exposure revealed that 38.9% of children, 26.7% of women, and 31.1% of men were at potential non-carcinogenic risk (HQ > 1), indicating that fluoride exposure from drinking water may adversely affect a significant portion of the local population.Children exhibited the highest susceptibility due to lower body weight and higher water intake rates per unit body mass.Dermal absorption contributed negligibly to overall exposure (<5%), confirming that ingestion is the dominant pathway of concern.Spatially, elevated fluoride risk zones were mainly associated with areas dominated by mineral dissolution and desorption processes, where prolonged waterrock interaction and alkaline conditions favored the release of fluoride from F-bearing minerals such as fluorite and apatite.In contrast, regions influenced by seawater intrusion or high calcium concentrations exhibited relatively lower fluoride levels due to precipitation control (fluorite equilibrium).The predominance of HQ values exceeding unity in a substantial portion of samples emphasizes an urgent need for fluoride mitigation and safe water supply strategies in affected neighborhoods of Béjaïa.Regular monitoring of groundwater quality, particularly in high-pH and low Ca zones, is essential to prevent further accumulation of fluoride.Public health measures should focus on raising awareness, reducing exposure through blending or treatment (e.g., activated alumina or reverse osmosis), and targeting vulnerable groups such as school-aged children.In summary, the risk assessment demonstrates that fluoride contamination in the Béjaïa coastal aquifers poses a moderate to high non-carcinogenic risk, mainly through oral exposure.Addressing this issue through integrated hydrogeochemical monitoring and public health interventions is vital to ensure the sustainability and safety of groundwater resources in northern Algeria.
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